Border conflicts (emphasis on Ukraine) Carter, J. Chris. Introduction to Human Geography Using ArcGIS Online (pp. 646-650). Esri Press. Kindle Edition.

 Border conflicts 

"Centrifugal forces can tear a country apart as a region attempts to break away and form a new nation-state. But there are other situations that can cause territorial instability and conflicts over borders. These can be broken down into four broad categories: identity, demarcation, resources, and security. The case of identity relates most closely to the discussion on centrifugal forces. When a group sees itself as a nation distinct from the state it currently lives in, it can seek to break free. Sometimes its national identity straddles two or more countries, driving a movement that impacts multiple states. This is the case of the Kurds and their secessionist dreams of an independent Kurdistan, as mentioned. In other situations, a region of one state will be incorporated, voluntarily or by force, and join another state. This process is referred to as irredentism. Typically, irredentism takes place when the incorporated region is viewed as an integral part of the larger state. It can be based on historical claims to territory, as when Argentina attempted unsuccessfully to take the British-controlled Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) in 1982 or based on cultural affinity, as with Russia and the Russian-speaking population of Ukraine (figure 11.23). Figure 11.22.Centrifugal forces in Iraq. Data sources: Vogt, Manuel et al 2015 and Wucherpfennig et al, 2011. In the case of Ukraine, deep division lies between its western Ukrainian speaking half, which wants stronger relationships with Western Europe, and its eastern half, where Russian is the dominant language and residents prefer ties with Russia. Disagreement between the two halves rose to a point of crisis, and in 2014, Russia invaded and annexed the Crimean Peninsula. At the same time, Russia sent troops and military equipment to support pro-Russian rebels in eastern Ukraine (figure 11.24). In one especially tragic event, a commercial airliner flying over eastern Ukraine was shot down by poorly trained rebels using sophisticated Russian antiaircraft systems. Many of these pro-Russian rebels desire unification of their region with Russia. Border disputes can also arise from disagreements and uncertainty over demarcation. Many times, natural features are used to divide states, but detailed land surveys are not always available. For instance, a border may follow the peak of a mountain range, and countries may disagree exactly where the line lies. Another problem can come from the use of rivers as borders. While rivers can serve as a natural division between two states, they are not static features. With time, rivers can change course, potentially shifting borders. This was the case between Mexico and the United States along a segment of the Rio Grande near El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. In 1864, heavy rains caused the river’s channel to shift south, adding about 700 acres to the United States. Over the years, roughly 5,000 Americans moved into this area, known as the Chamizal, and built homes and businesses. Mexico protested this loss of land, and the dispute continued until 1964, when much of the land was returned to Mexico and US residents were forced to relocate. The river is now channelized in cement and can no longer change location. Figure 11.23.Irredentism and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Data sources: Vogt, Manuel et al. 2015 and Wucherpfennig et al, 2011. Figure 11.24.Destroyed airport in Donetsk, eastern Ukraine. In 2014–15, pro-Russian rebels and the Ukrainian military fought for control of the airport, ultimately leaving it destroyed. Photo by Denis Kornilov. Stock photo ID: 443034715. Shutterstock.com. Conflict over natural resources is another reason behind border disputes. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 was partially related to oil resources and partly related to irredentism. From an irredentist standpoint, the Iraqi government had viewed Kuwait as an integral part of Iraq going back to the Ottoman Empire. But ultimately, it was a dispute over oil that led to the invasion. Iraq had major debts from its war with Iran and desperately needed oil revenue. It accused Kuwait of exceeding its OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) quota, driving down world oil prices, and of slant drilling into Iraqi oil fields along its border. Iraq therefore invaded Kuwait, taking control of the country in a matter of hours. The international community rejected Iraq’s invasion, resulting if the US-led Gulf War of 1991 that expelled Iraq from Kuwait. Border conflicts can also occur when one state feels threatened by a neighboring state. Again, we can look at Russia’s intervention in Ukraine to illustrate the point. While one reason for Russia’s annexation of the Crimean Peninsula and support of pro-Russian rebels in Ukraine’s east was to support the Russian-speaking population, another was for security purposes. The Ukrainian government was pursuing membership in the European Union, which would draw it closer to Western interests. Ukraine had been a Republic of the Soviet Union and upon its dissolution gave Russia a long-term lease on a naval base located in Ukrainian territory. One fear of Russia was that Ukrainian ties with Europe could threaten its base, a key strategic point of naval access from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea and on to the Atlantic Ocean."

Carter, J. Chris. Introduction to Human Geography Using ArcGIS Online (pp. 646-650). Esri Press. Kindle Edition.